Table 1 Comparison of various antifouling strategies presented in this paper
From: Bio-inspired strategies for designing antifouling biomaterials
| Antifouling strategy | Principle/Mechanism | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Biological molecules | |||
| 1.1 Nitric oxide-releasing materials | Oxidative or nitrosative stress-inducing moieties are produced within the biofilm structure to cause bacteriophage induction, and cell lysis. | Synthetic NO donor supplements the natural sources | Because of high reactivity (instability), storage and delivery requires special attention. |
| Selective to only certain bacterial types. | |||
| 1.2 Peptide and peptoid modified surfaces | Through structural reformations that inhibit cell adhesion. | Exceptional resistance to a wide variety of proteins. | High cost of peptide/peptoid modification of surfaces |
| Tailorable surface structure for optimum performance. | |||
| 2. Chemical modification | |||
| 2.1 Hydrophilic polymers | A layer of strongly bound water that cannot be displaced by a protein and thus inhibiting protein adsorption. | Uses poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), an U.S. federal drug administration (FDA) approved GRAS (generally recognized as safe) substance | Oxidative damages and low surface densities limit long-term application. |
| 2.2 Immobilization of PEG | Anchoring of PEG using a mussel-mimicking linker. | Less susceptible to hydrolytic degradation than free PEG | Limited by the availability of suitable surface functionalities for anchoring PEG |
| 2.3 Zwitterionic polymers | High protein resistance through the formation of “super-hydrophilicity”. | Long-term antifouling characteristics. | Limited commercial availability of zwitterionic polymers |
| Unique capability for ligand immobilization. | |||
| 2.4 Hydrophobic polymers | Inhibits the adsorption of proteins that require polar surfaces. | Many hydrophobic polymers are commercially available. | Toxicity concerns with many hydrophobic polymers. |
| 3. Micropatterning of surfaces | |||
| 3.1 Lotus-effect | Self-cleaning ability of the superhydrophobic surface prevents adhesion | A physical texture enhances the role of the simple waxy surface | Limited by fabrication techniques and general applicability |
| 3.2 Shark-skin patterns | Surface patterns along with an antifouling chemical agent sloughs of attached cells | A physical modification of the surface to enhance the effect of chemical agent | Limited by wide applicability. Applicable to moving surfaces. |